Stingray Stings: Injuries, Deaths, What They Are Like and Avoiding Them

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STINGRAY STINGS ("BARBING")


Posterior anatomy of a stingray. (1) Pelvic Fins (2) Caudal Tubercles (3) Stinger (4) Dorsal Fin (5) Claspers (6) Tail

Stingrays can inflict excruciatingly painful stings — known to scientists as "barbing" — that in many cases is more akin to being stabbed by a poisoned saw than being stung by a bee. Stingrays frequently bury themselves in the sand or mud in shallow water, often in places where human swimmers are plentiful. It is not an unlikely occurrence for someone to step on one and get stung. If stepped on, a ray thrusts its tail forcefully upward into the victim. The serrated, barbed spine not only delivers venom, but also creates a deep wound often worsened by the thrashing of the ray. Fishermen on coastlines of many parts of the world fear stingrays. Victims of stings generally recover, but fatalities have occurred. [Source: Animal Diversity Web (ADW)]

According to the American College of Emergency Physicians: The sting of a stingray causes a bleeding wound that may become swollen and turn blue or red. It causes excruciating pain and can result in death. Severe symptoms may include nausea, fever, muscle cramps, paralysis, elevated heart rate and seizures.

Stingrays are bottom dwellers. Their stinger is on top near the base of the tail. It lets them defend themselves from predators — such as hammerhead sharks — coming at them from above. Stingrays are not usually aggressive and ordinarily attack humans only when provoked, such as when they are accidentally stepped on. Victims, who accidently step on a stingray or kick it, receive an excruciatingly painful and severe but rarely lethal sting on the ankle.

When asked if a stingray dies if it stings itself, Terry Verduin, a retired lawyer and author of Animal Fact and Fiction, posted on Quora.com in 2020: A stingray does not control its stinger, but it does control the tail on which the stinging barb is located. This location would prevent a stingray from stinging itself. In the unlikely event it stings another stingray or shark, the venom won’t harm them. They are immune. The barb may penetrate deeply and leave a bad wound. These wounds can be deadly. [Source: Quora.com]

Not all rays sting. The term “ray” includes skates, guitarfish, manta rays and devil rays. Only true stingrays possess venomous barbs, which it developed as a defence tool against larger aquatic predators such as sharks. [Source: Jaelen Nicole Myers, PhD Candidate, James Cook University, The Conversation, January 10, 2023]

Websites and Resources: Animal Diversity Web (ADW) animaldiversity.org; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) noaa.gov; Fishbase fishbase.se ; Encyclopedia of Life eol.org ; Smithsonian Oceans Portal ocean.si.edu/ocean-life-ecosystems

Stingray Injuries

Many more people are hospitalized every year for injuries from stingrays than shark bites. By one count 1,500 people are injured by stingrays per year in U.S. waters alone. People who have been stung say it is the most painful thing they have ever experienced. The sting can also cause rapid onset of nausea, vomiting, and breathing difficulties. Wounded areas may become ulcerous and even gangrenous.


Swollen leg after a stingray sting

Most stingray incidents occur to the ankles and lower legs. Jaelen Nicole Myers wrote in The Conversation: The barb is the only part of a stingray you should be wary of. Since it is located close to the base of the tail on most species, the rest of the tail and the body are harmless to touch.You’re only in barbing range if you stand nearly on top of their bodies, but they usually shuffle away long before you get that close. When they feel threatened or are stepped on, rays may react defensively by jerking their tail. That’s why injuries are usually on the foot or ankle. Injuries to extremities vary in severity and pain degree. [Source: Jaelen Nicole Myers, PhD Candidate, James Cook University, The Conversation, January 10, 2023]

Contact with the spinal blade or blades causes local trauma (from the cut itself), pain, swelling, muscle cramps from the venom and, later, may result in infection from bacteria or fungi. The injury is very painful, but rarely life-threatening unless the stinger pierces a vital area. The blade is frequently barbed and usually breaks off in the wound. Surgery may be required to remove the fragments. [Source: Wikipedia]

According to Merck Manuals: Stingrays once caused about 750 stings per year along North American coasts; the present incidence is unknown, and most cases are not reported. Venom is contained in one or more spines on the dorsum of the animal’s tail. Injuries usually occur when an unwary swimmer wading in ocean surf, bay, or backwater steps on a stingray buried in the sand and provokes it to thrust its tail upward and forward, driving the dorsal spine (or spines) into the patient’s foot or leg. The integumentary sheath surrounding the spine ruptures, and the venom escapes into the patient’s tissues.[Source: Robert A. Barish , MD, MBA, University of Illinois at Chicago; Thomas Arnold , MD, Department of Emergency Medicine, LSU Health Sciences Center Shreveport,MSD Manual, Professional Version, September 2022]

Stingray Tails and Venom

Stingrays sting, not with the end of their tails, but with a spine sticking out of the middle of the tail that pops out like a switchblade when the ray feels threatened. Stingrays whip up their tails in defense —. quickly moving its forward and down as an involuntary reflex action. The tail can cause a nasty, painful, ragged wound but even more worrisome sometimes are the venomous spines which run along the stingrays back. Although some rays can produce an electric shock to defend themselves or stun prey, stingrays do not.

Stringray tails are usually longer than the animals’ disc and bears one or more long, serrated spines behind the pelvic fins. The spines themselves are actually dermal denticles, or modified scales material tipped with barbs and containing blood vessels in the pulp and enamel on the surface. The spines may reach 40 centimeters (1.4 feet) in length and generally are only used in defense. Each spine has grooves on its underside that contain venom-producing soft tissue. Stingrays have been reported to whip their tails with such force that they can drive their spines through the wooden bottom of a boat. The stinging barbs on its tail can be regenerated if broken off. They are constantly being shed and replaced. [Source: Monica Weinheimer and R. Jamil Jonna, Animal Diversity Web (ADW) /=]

Stingray are notable in that they store their venom within tissue cells. Typically, other venomous animals create and store their venom in a gland. The venom of stingrays is relatively unstudied in part because it is the mixture of venomous tissue secretions cells and mucous membrane cell products that occurs upon secretion from the spinal blade. Toxins that have been confirmed to be in stingray venom include cystatins, peroxiredoxin and galectin. Galectin induces cell death in its victims. Cystatins inhibit defense enzymes. In humans, these toxins lead to increased blood flow in the superficial capillaries and cell death. The venom of freshwater stingrays has higher toxicity than that of marine stingrays.[Source: Wikipedia]

Stingrays can have one, two or three blades. They often obtain extra ones as they get bigger and older. The venom-bearing spines are covered with an epidermal skin layer. During secretion, the venom penetrates the epidermis and mixes with the mucus to release the venom on its victim. The venom is produced and stored in the secretory cells of the vertebral column. These secretory cells are housed within the ventrolateral grooves of the spine. The cells of both marine and freshwater stingrays are round and contain a great amount of granule-filled cytoplasm. The stinging cells of marine stingrays are located only within these lateral grooves of the stinger. Despite the number of cells and toxins that are within the stingray, there is little relative energy required to produce and store the venom.


sting ray barb


What Its like Being Stung by a Stingray

On what its like being stung by a stingray, Jamesley Gourlay posted on Quora.com in 2021: ABSOLUTELY EXCRUCIATING.. I have laboured two children without pain relief and I'm an avid skateboarder who slams concrete often. So, I know pain. This was unbearable. Morphine didn't help. Local anaesthetic didn't help. Pain medication does not help. Only antibiotics and hot water submersion helped. Hot water gave relief. I was in unbearable pain for five hours. If I took my foot out of hot water the pain would hit like it had just happened. [Source: Quora.com]

Seabird McKeon, a biologist, posted in 2016: It isn't nice. Essentially, you are stabbed with a serrated 'blade' which is also venomous and covered in ray slime. The cut itself can be bad if you are messing with a large ray, and venom is decidedly painful. I've only been stung by a small ray that got me on the foot. The cut was through a dive bootie, and was still a bleeder. The venom was similar to a bad wasp sting, but went away pretty quickly when I soaked my foot in hot water.

Anonymous posted in 2021: The pain level can be anywhere from a 7 to a 9 within 10 min of it happening. You have to put hot water on it right away. I was walking on the beach with my friends” in 2020 “and I stepped on something while getting out of the water. I felt a quick sharp pain and then it started throbbing...I got stung by a baby and the pain was horrendous. The entry wound was less than a mm in size and to this day it is slightly tender when I touch it. The best thing you can do is deal with the burning hot water and get that venom out of your system.

On his friend being stung, Peter Osborne posted in 2020: We were fishing in a quiet bay in NE Tasmania. He hauled in a stingray and before I could get a heavy knife to remove it’s tail, he tried to unhook it. He was struck on the lower calf, and not much more than a heavy scratch showed. I told him we better get him to a Dr., but he said it wasn’t much only a heavy scratch. Anyway, I insisted so we set of at full speed. Let me tell you we had a 20 foot wooden boat with a Put Put 2 stroke motor and we were about 2 miles from the wharf. By the time we headed up the estuary he was rolling around the bilge, moaning and yelling. at me to increase the speed. To make matters worse we were against a falling tide. Back at the wharf his voice had gathered almost everyone who didn’t mind bad language and we got him out and to a hospital about 13 miles away. His whole leg swelled, and I believe the pain is just awful. Two weeks later he was OK and of course blaiming everyone but himself.

Fred Heald said he was stung around the year 2000. “When I stepped down on the ray, it felt like stepping on a piece of glass - a quick sharp slice. I went up to the lifeguard station, and they took me back and put my foot in very hot water. It didn’t really hurt for about half an hour, then it started to ache and cramp, and soon it felt like someone was slamming a brick into my foot, over and over (pulsing with my heartbeat, I guess?). That turned into a solid cramp and burning sensation that lasted several hours; after I got home and soaked it in hot water again, I took some painkillers and finally passed out asleep. By the time I woke up several hours later most of the pain had subsided; by the next day it didn’t hurt. I apparently got a fairly small clean slice - about ½ inch long, L-shaped - and it didn’t leave any debris in the wound aside from the toxins.

Nelson Groome, who studied marine biology, posted in 2021: My luck was to step on a small one — felt like some one stabbed at my foot with a Phillips screw driver - while wading a boat anchor ashore — a superficial poke. It was not real painful and the pain passed fairly quickly. Wes Phillips posted in 2021: I was in Mexico a the Sea of Cortez (aka Gulf of California) and I didn’t shuffle my feet so I got stabbed on my heel. It was painful, but didn’t cause any lasting damage.


stingray spine


Symptoms of Stingray Stings

According to the Merck Manuals: The main symptom of a stingray sting is immediate severe pain. Although often limited to the injured area, the pain may spread rapidly, reaching its greatest intensity in less than 90 minutes; in most cases, pain gradually diminishes over 6 to 48 hours but occasionally lasts days or weeks. [Source: Robert A. Barish , MD, MBA, University of Illinois at Chicago; Thomas Arnold , MD, Department of Emergency Medicine, LSU Health Sciences Center Shreveport, MSD Manual, Professional Version, September 2022]

Syncope (temporary loss of consciousness caused by a fall in blood pressure), weakness, nausea, and anxiety are common and may be due, in part, to peripheral vasodilation (widening of blood vessels as a result of the relaxation of the blood vessel's muscular walls). Lymphangitis (an infection of the lymph vessels (channels)), vomiting, diarrhea, sweating, generalized cramps, inguinal or axillary pain, respiratory distress, and death have been reported.

The wound is usually jagged, bleeds freely, and is often contaminated with parts of the integumentary sheath. The edges of the wound are often discolored, and some localized tissue destruction may occur. Generally, some swelling is present. Open wounds are subject to infection.

Treatment for Stingray Stings

Reportedly, soaking the injured part of the body in very hot water (about 50 degrees Celsius) for 30 to 90 minutes can alleviate pain from the venom. After he was stung, Anonymous posted on Quora.com in 2021: I walked to the lifeguard station and they immediately knew it was a sting ray. They put my foot in scalding hot water but I couldn’t handle it so they instead cooled down the water. After they cooled down the water the pain became immense. It moved up my leg and all my leg muscles were cramping and throbbing. I finally agreed to having the scalding hot water placed around my foot and it helped instantly. [Source: Quora.com]

According to Web MD adds: Irrigation and debridement — when health care providers clean a wound and remove any particles of debris — are the mainstays of stingray sting treatment. The extremity containing the sting should be irrigated gently with salt water to remove contaminants like spine pieces, glandular tissue, and skin sheath. Whether you’re in the water or on land when the sting happens, do not remove the stingray spine unless it has penetrated the thorax, neck, or abdomen, it has fully severed an injured limb, or it is only weakly embedded. [Source: Web MD]

Attempt to stop bleeding by applying pressure to the area around the injury. Soaking in warm water is not a verified early sting treatment, but some health care workers recommend it. After a patient arrives in the emergency room, providers should check the wound for leftover sheath. The ER staff may give a local anesthetic. If spines are embedded, they will be treated like other foreign objects. If the patient was stung on the trunk of the body, the staff should examine closely for injury to internal organs. They’ll decide whether to close up the wound or cover it and allow it to heal. Staff may administer treatment for symptoms, including medication for pain or nausea, as well as a tetanus shot. Some people may receive a prescription for antibiotics to fight potential infection. After the patient leaves the hospital, health care providers will probably recommend rest and elevating the injured area for several days.

Lim Chee-Eng posted on Quora.com in 2022: Stingrays don’t bite. They spear you with toxic slime covered barbs at their tail. Some may have 3 or more spikes”. If you “pull out the barb, the spike is serrated and will tear the skin like a saw blade. Get help. Don’t believe the old grandfather fisherman tale and piss on it, The venom and piss will hurt you much more. If it is stuck break off the spine, get medical attention ASAP. Pulling it out may kill you from toxic shock and immense bleeding.

Avoiding Stingray Stings

20120518-Stingray_injury.jpg
Stingray injury
Among the easiest ways to avoid being stung by a stingray are to shuffle your feet as you walk in the water or to float on the surface. When moving about in a place with stingrays one should make their presence known by making noise and moving around and give the ray enough warning to flee.

Candy Will lives in Key West, Florida. She posted on Quora.com in 2022: Where I live stingrays are a common sight. Most of the ones that beach goers come in contact with are in in shallow water and are on the bottom as they forage for food. Swimmers who are not careful step on them as they rush into the water and the stinger on the animal punctures the swimmers foot, resulting in an extremely painful wound. Watch where you are putting your feet. If the water is murky shuffle your way into deeper water to swim. Common sense is the best approach to avoiding a painful encounter with a stingray. [Source: Quora.com

In the United States, Gray Wilton posted in 2020: Southern stingrays and yellow stingrays inhabit shallow waters near sandy beaches, and these are the ones that require caution when swimming in these areas. It is best to learn the "stingray shuffle" if you visit the sandy beaches of southern California or Florida. What does that mean? Instead of stepping normally when you're in the water, drag your feet as you walk. This will alert a stingray to your presence and then it will likely move away before it does any harm. If you do step on something soft, step off it as quickly as possible.

Lim Chee-Eng posted in 2022: If you fish up a stingray, your first priority is to immobilize the barbs, if you are going to eat it, break the barbs at the base and throw them far away, never on the boat deck or the boardwalk. Then you can unhook the fish. If you are in a ray infested area, be aware. Don’t be stupid and play with them, They are accidents that will happened.

Diving with Stingrays

On encountering stingrays while diving, Ranga posted on Quora.com in 2020: I’ve been scuba diving quite frequently in the Cayman Islands where sting rays, eagle rays and many other types of rays are commonly encountered. Sometimes I’ve been in close quarters with them, they tend to move away if you move in too fast, they are shy creatures. It’s a thrill to see them like this in the wild

Diving instructor James Bamsey wrote: Arguably one of the most exhilarating experiences when scuba diving or snorkeling is spotting a stingray! The size and grace of these majestic creatures can leave both seasoned professionals and new scuba divers in awe. If you were to hold your breath for a few seconds while scuba diving you can actually hear their pectoral fins pushing the water behind them propelling them forward. [Source: James Bamsey is a PADI scuba diving instructor in the Canary Islands, Deep Blu, July 19, 2019]

When entering the water shuffle or slide your feet along the shallow sandy bottom. This will alert any Stingray of your presence and they will swim away. This will prevent you from stepping on them once you enter the water. If you are lucky enough to spot a Stingray when scuba diving, do not crowd the ray. Experts believe that the combined position of Steve Irwin above the ray and the cameraman in front of the ray would have made the stingray feel trapped and triggered a defensive attack. Keep your distance and do not form a circle around the ray, remember we are invading their habitat. If you are stung by a Stingray, rinse the wound in very hot water. It helps relieve the pain from the venom and seek medical attention immediately.

Stingray Deaths

Fatal stingray stings are very rare. Statistics have only recorded 17 stingray deaths worldwide. At most only one or two fatal attacks are reported each year. The death of Steve Irwin in 2006 was only the second recorded in Australian waters since 1945. Since then there have been three others. Irwin’s fatal injury was the result of the stinger wound rather than the venom. The stinger penetrated his thoracic wall and pierced his heart, causing massive trauma and bleeding.

Fatal stingray victims who died in Australia were stung in the chest, like Irwin. Jaelen Nicole Myers wrote in The Conversation: Thousands of stingray injuries are reported worldwide each year but, interestingly, only five recorded deaths have been reported in Australia since 1945, and fewer than 20 worldwide. Actually, more people die each year from falling out of bed – 73 people in Australia in 2021 alone, according to data from the Australian Bureau of Statistics. [Source: Jaelen Nicole Myers, PhD Candidate, James Cook University, The Conversation, January 10, 2023]


short-tail stingray, the species that killed Steve Irwin. Notice the long barb on its tail

In November 2018, a 42-year-old man died from stingray injury while swimming near Hobart, Tasmania. He suffered a cardiac arrest after apparently being stung on his lower abdomen. The Guardian reported: Attempts to resuscitate the man, who suffered a cardiac arrest afternoon in the waters at Lauderdale beach, east of Hobart, were unsuccessful, police said. “He was removed from the water by friends prior to the arrival of emergency services,” the Tasmanian police said in a statement. “It was reported he was unaccompanied in the water at the time of sustaining a puncture wound to his lower abdomen.” The man was swimming close to shore when the attack happened. Fatal stingray attacks on humans are extremely rare. Its venom causes pain and can alter heart rate and breathing. [Source: The Guardian, November 18 2018]

In March 2008, a 55-year-old woman was killed near Marathon Key, Florida when an eagle ray — with a meter and half wing span and weighing 36 kilograms — leapt out the water and struck her while she was boating with her family. The woman was pronounce dead at a local hospital. Initially it was said she was struck the neck by the ray’s it barbed tail but no evidence of any puncture was found. Rather she died from injuries sustained by the impact with the ray and the boat after she fell down. The boat was traveling at 40 kph. Rays sometimes leap out of the water but it is was freak accident for one to hit a person like this.

Steve Irwin Killed by a Stingray

In September 4, 2006, Steve Irwin, the star of the popular television show “Crocodile Hunter” was killed by a stingray while doing a shoot in diving gear at the Great Barrier reef in eastern Australia. Forty-four-year-old Irwin was swimming with the ray and handling it when it suddenly sent a serrated poisonous spine into Irwin’s heart. Irwin pulled the spine from his chest but then immediately fell unconscious. This much was video taped. After that the cameraman turned off his camera.

Irwin was at Batt Reef, near Port Douglas (about 100 kilometers, 60 miles north of Cairns), Queensland, taking part in the production of the documentary Ocean's Deadliest. During a lull in filming caused by bad weather, Irwin decided to snorkel in shallow waters while being filmed in an effort to provide footage for his daughter Bindi's television program. [Source: Wikipedia]

The stingray's barb pierced Irwin’s chest, penetrating his thoracic wall and heart, causing massive trauma. Irwin died not because he simply received a sting from the ray but because the ray’s barb punctured his heart, a freaky occurrence. John Stainton, the manager and producer of the show that was being taped when Irwin was killed, told reporters that the tape “shows that Steve came over top of the ray and the tail came up, and spiked him here [in the chest], and he pulled it out and the next minute he’s gone. That was it. The cameraman had to shut down.”

Irwin was killed by a short-tail stingray (Dasyatis brevicaudata), a huge but normally docile fish also known as a smooth stingray or bull ray. The largest of all stingrays, it can grow up to 4.3 meters (14 feet) long and weigh more than 340 kilograms (750 pounds). Short-tail stingrays possess two tail spines: “a slender spike in front of a huge jagged bayonet.” The ray that injured Irwin plunged its rear tail barb, reportedly close to 20 centimeters (eight inches) long, into his chest. [Source: Adam T. Hadhazy, Scienceline September 11, 2006]

The accident happened while Irwin was swimming in chest-deep water. The ray — a short-tail stingray, with an approximate wingspan of two meters (6.5 feet) — approached Irwin from the rear, in order to film it swimming away. Many believe that the attack was unprovoked. Some have argued, though, that the stingray believed that Irwin’s shadow was, in fact, a predator as his shadow mimicked that of a tiger shark. Irwin initially believed he had only a punctured lung; however, the stingray's barb pierced his heart, causing him to bleed to death. Crew members aboard Irwin's boat administered CPR and rushed him to the nearby Low Isles, where medical staff pronounced him dead.. Irwin was videotaped pulling the barb from his chest moments before losing consciousness forever, a witness told Associated Press. The tape was secured by Queensland state police as evidence for a coroner's inquiry.

Videotape of Steve Irwin’s Death

Irwin's death is the only fatality from a stingray captured on video, There was some debate for a while as to whether the video would ever be shown. Steve Irwin's biographer Tommy Donovan much if the death was caught on tape. Donovan said: Well, Steve had a rule: "He tells his camera crew to always be filming...If he needs help he will ask for it. Even if he is eaten by a shark or croc, the main thing he wants is that it be filmed. If he died he would be sad if no one got it on tape." [Source: Shola Lee, LAD Bible, September 5 2022]

Shola Lee wrote in LAD Bible: And that's what happened after his cameraman Justin Lyons caught the attack on camera, at first not realising the severity of the situation. The pair had been trying to gather footage for his daughter's TV show, Bindi the Jungle Girl. "It should have been an innocent encounter for a TV show aimed at children," John Stainton, the director of the show, explained. When Lyons got him back onto the boat, Irwin 'was having trouble breathing'. He said: "Even if we'd been able to get him into an emergency ward at that moment we probably wouldn't have been able to save him because the damage to his heart was massive. "As we're motoring back I'm screaming at one of the other crew in the boat to put their hand over the wound and we're saying to him things like, 'Think of your kids, Steve, hang on, hang on, hang on."


Fishermen with stingrays on Dingo Beach in 1925


The entire attack and Lyon and the paramedic's attempts to save him were all caught on camera. The tape was then passed on to authorities to aid their investigations. Once returned, Discovery Communications, the network that propelled Irwin's career, said that the footage would 'never see the light of day'. Stainton, who was a close friend of Irwin's, then went to say that 'it should be destroyed'. "When that is finally released [after investigations], it will never see the light of day. Ever. Ever. I actually saw it, but I don't want to see it again," he told Larry King Live. All copies of the tape were destroyed following investigations, except one - that copy was reportedly given to Irwin's wife, Terri who is said to have destroyed the tape without watching it.

Stingray Fear and Revenge

Jaelen Nicole Myers wrote in The Conversation: Despite their reputation as being dangerous, stingray-caused deaths are actually rare. Accidental injuries do happen, but understanding how and why “barbings” occur could help prevent them and help beachgoers overcome the stingray stigma. The existence of a “stingray stigma” became obvious to me after I recently posted an Instagram reel demonstrating the proper technique for picking up a stingray. Despite the fact I’m well trained in this procedure, multiple commenters were flabbergasted I would attempt something so dangerous. [Source: Jaelen Nicole Myers, PhD Candidate, James Cook University, The Conversation, January 10, 2023]

A few more suggested I should fling the stingray out of my hands to avenge Steve Irwin. We can assume these comments are jokes, but weeks after his death news reports showed Irwin fans may have sought retribution when a handful of stingrays on Queensland’s beaches were found with their tails cut off. Antipathy towards stingrays is likely influenced by media headlines which often paint the animals in a negative light. Many reports about stingrays are coupled with terms such as “stingray attack” but, in fact, they rarely act aggressively.

James Bamsey wrote: The main reason behind the perception that stingrays are dangerous is the death of Steve Irwin. This renowned conservationist and television personality was allegedly ‘’attacked’’ and killed by a stingray in 2006. News spread that Steve was reportedly ‘’stabbed hundreds of times’’ which led to dozens of stingrays being mutilated as revenge for his death. Many Australians even went as far as threatening to punch captive stingrays. From this moment in 2006 stingrays were classified as something to be apprehensive of, and worldwide fear was instilled. [Source: James Bamsey is a PADI scuba diving instructor in the Canary Islands, Deep Blu, July 19, 2019]

Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons, NOAA

Text Sources: Animal Diversity Web (ADW) animaldiversity.org; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) noaa.gov; Wikipedia, National Geographic, Live Science, BBC, Smithsonian, New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, The New Yorker, Reuters, Associated Press, Lonely Planet Guides and various books and other publications.

Last Updated April 2023


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